1. Bangladesh, formerly known as East Bengal and East Pakistan, has a historical legacy as a region once part of ancient India. Cultural and trade ties between China and ancient India date back roughly 2,000 years. The historical evidence confirms that Chinese merchants had affluent commercial links with ancient India. P. R. China has maintained bilateral relations with India and Pakistan since its foundation; however, its interactions with each nation remain diverse. Thus, Bangladesh, having been part of both ancient India and Pakistan, shares a long history of collaboration and cooperation with China.  Although Bangladesh–China official diplomatic relations started in 1976, Beijing provided a US$4 million donation to Bangladesh after the floods in 1974 (Chowdhury, 2009). Vice Premier Li Xiannian was the first top Chinese leader to visit Dhaka in March 1978. During the visit, an agreement was signed between the two sides for cooperation in the fields of economy, science, and technology (Datta, 2021). The degree of collaboration between Bangladesh and China since then has constantly been risen. Bangladesh has undertaken various initiatives to uphold and develop the ties during the military regimes. Defense aid from China was central to bilateral ties throughout this period; for instance, in 1975–1980, Bangladesh imported 78% of its arms from China. Bangladesh kicked off its democratic restoration journey in 1991 after 15 years of military rule. During the years 1991 to 2008, Bangladesh and China began solidifying themselves as reliable partners. Bangladesh’s “Look East”6 policy and support for “One China principle”7 converted this relationship into a trustworthy collaboration. Bangladesh celebrated 25 years of diplomatic relations with China by the release of a postal stamp in 2000. The “Bangladesh–China Friendship Year” was observed in 2005. China assisted Bangladesh to get membership in the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) Regional Forum, and reciprocally, Bangladesh invited China to participate as an observer in SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation). However, until the first decade of the 21st century, the relationship between Bangladesh and China was comprised of minor and insignificant trade transactions. The 2010s witnessed unique politico-economic relations by engaging in massive economic and infrastructural deals under BRI, military purchases, FDI (foreign direct investment), and duty-free trade. The relationship eventually developed into a strategic partnership. Bangladesh imported 82% of its arms on credit and soft loans from China from 2009 to 2014. Bangladesh defense forces use Chinese fighter planes, armor, missiles, and Ming-class submarines. Dhaka placed an order for 23 Hongdu K-8W training jets under a deal worth over $200 million on June 20, 2018. Seven of them were already received by Bangladesh in 2020. Chinese and Bangladeshi armed forces have mutual access to training facilities in one another’s military schools, and the defense forces of Bangladesh demonstrate more preference for Chinese weaponry than other countries (Shikha, 2014; Mushtaq, 2018; Bhattacharjee, 2018; Ramachandran, 2019).  Economic cooperation has reached a record level since Bangladesh officially declared its support for the BRI. Chinese President Xi Jinping’s visit to Bangladesh in 2016 marked the beginning of a new era in Sino-Bangladesh relations. This landmark visit netted 27 deals worth US$24 billion dollars. Subsequently, China has supported nearly all large-scale infrastructure developments in Dhaka. The primary focus of Chinese investment in Bangladesh has been developing and enhancing crucial infrastructure such as airports, highways, bridges, railroads, and power plants. Beijing has funded $1 billion in digital connectivity and $3.7 billion in the Padma Bridge rail project and built eight friendship bridges in Bangladesh (Bhattacharjee, 2018; Ramachandran, 2019). During Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina’s official visit to China in 2019, nine bilateral agreements were signed, covering various areas such as aid for the Rohingyas, economic and technical cooperation, investment, power, culture, and tourism. China declared duty-free status for 97% of Bangladeshi imports in 2020, and a total of 8,256 Bangladeshi export items are now duty-free under the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA). China currently holds the top position as Bangladesh’s largest trading partner, FDI contributor, importer, and provider of military weapons (Anwar, 2022; Devonshire-Ellis, 2020).

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